Primary Source Set

The Southern Freedom Movement: The Effort for Civil Rights in North Carolina

Following the long history of enslavement and the resulting Civil War, states within the U.S. adopted racist and segregationist policies that became known as Jim Crow laws. Throughout these years and continuing today, people have organized against racist and white supremacist systems, institutions, and practices, both through the lens of the Civil Rights Movement and the broader Southern Freedom Movement. This set of newspapers, photographs, oral histories, and other types of documentation describes the lived experiences of people in North Carolina and the efforts of people organizing for racial justice. 

Proceed with caution and care through these materials as the content may be disturbing or difficult to review. Specifically, there are mentions and descriptions of racist and white supremacist violence and murders, oppression based on race, racist and white supremacist language, and offensive former race labels. Please read DigitalNC’s Harmful Content statement for further guidance. 

Time Period

1954-2007

Grade Level

Undergraduate

The forum headline, excerpts from two articles, and four headlines for article submissions to the paper’s forum. Newspaper is printed on tan paper with little damage.

Transcript

(Clipping 1) THE FALCON’S FORUM: “BLACK POWER” (Clipping 2) STOKELY CARMICHAEL One of the tragedies of the struggle against racism Is that up to now there has been no national organization which could speak to the growing militancy of young black people In the urban ghetto. There has been only a civil rights movement, whose tone of voice was adapted to an audience of liberal whites. It served as a sort of buffer zone between them and angry young blacks. None of its so-called leaders could go Into rioting community and be listened to. In a sense, I blame ourselves -- toghether with the mass media -- for what has happened in Watts, Harlem, Chicago, Cleveland, Omaha. Each time the people In those cities saw Martin Luther King get slapped, they became angry; and when nothing happened, they were steaming. We had nothing to offer that they could see, except to go out and be beaten again. We helped to build their frustration. For too many years, black Americans marched and had their heads broken and got shot. They were saying to the country, "Look, you guys are supposed to be nice guys and we are only going to do what we are suppose to do — why do you beat us up, why don’t you give us what we ask, why don’t you straighten yourselves out?” After years of this, we are at almost the same point - because we demonstrated from a position of weakness. We cannot be expected any longer to march and have our heads broken In order to say to whites: come on, you’re nice guys. For you are not nice guys. We have found you out. (Clipping 3) Reaction To Black Power - CY GERALDINE JONES (Clipping 4) Do We Know The Meaning Of Black Power? - HOYIE UTLEY (Clipping 5) GLAZE. MILDRED The Negro communlty has become nothing more than the arena for the bout between the Negro and his identity, with the white man as the referee. With the long held idea that Negroes are subservant to him, the white man tries his best to keep the Negro in one corner and the Negro’s Identity In the other. Whenever these two forces are at battle, with hopes of complete harmony in the end, the referee intervenes with bits of accommodation. To him, the damage done to the Negro and his identity must not be reconciled. Black Power is the ring announcer. Black Power serves as an Inoculation of both the Negro and his identity against the referee and reports to the audience, through all forms of mass media, the idea of fighting and winning for control over self. If the man in the ring wants to survive outside of the ring, he must be able to put up an even greater fight. The ring or Negro community must be able to have its own referee. The referee must have political power or control. He must know what is needed to reconcile the Negro and his identity. He must be the spokesman for the entire community. He must not accept the white man’s rules and laws for the Negro community. He must be Instrumental in the making of the laws and rules. But he can’t be a Martin Luther King. He has to be a Stokely Carmichael. He must not be afraid of an insurrection. He must protest both racially and socially; racially, he must attack Jim Crow, socially, he must attack the whole social order. But he must not fight anyway he knows how to become a valuable part of the country’s power structure. THrough Congress, he should be able to pave the way for assimilation, not accommodation. (Clipping 6) Destination: Peace - Herndon, Bertha Alma (Clipping 7) A Means To An End - Ruby Demesme

The St. Augustine's pen. (Raleigh, N.C.) [5/1/1967]

St. Augustine’s school newspaper, known as The Pen, provided students the space to share updates pertaining to the student body as well as local and national news. Students provided their own understandings and opinions on these events, particularly with the Civil Right Movement and the broader Southern Freedom Movement. Here, students submitted written responses to Stokely Carmichael‘s ‘What We Want’ and the growing Black Power movement. See the full forum by viewing the original document.

Contributed to DigitalNC by Saint Augustine's University, Wake County Public Libraries

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Raleigh, NC (Wake County)

The Southern Freedom Movement: The Effort for Civil Rights in North Carolina

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Background

Slavery, Reconstruction, and Jim Crow

Slavery had become a global institution with the rise of colonialism and the ideology of distinct races; a chosen hierarchy accompanied this construct, now known as white supremacy, and was used to justify the violence enacted through colonization. As the now named Americas were colonized, enslaved people from Africa began to be brought to the colonies during the early 1500-1600’s, and the practice of slavery grew exponentially from this point. Slavery was a strongly held American institution until the idea of abolition began to gain more widespread support in the early and mid-1800’s. Catalyzed by this support of abolition and economic motivations, a Civil War erupted in 1861 from the possible end to slavery in the U.S.

After the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) issued by president Lincoln declaring the end of slavery and then the Union’s victory in the Civil War (1865), the Reconstruction period began in the South to rebuild and restructure the post-war region, circa 1865-1877. The 13th amendment was ratified into the Constitution and officially prohibited the practice of slavery within the United States, except for slavery in the form of being incarcerated.

This saw the rise of laws and policies that continued white supremacist ideology, and in the everyday actions and anti-Black beliefs held by individuals throughout the country. The racist phrase ‘Jim Crow’ became the name given to the era of repression and segregation in the United States marked by racist and segregationist laws. This began primarily after the Reconstruction period in response to the increased participation of Black people in the community and politics, especially with the success of Black politicians in being elected in Southern states. These laws were in place throughout the country, not only the South, although the South’s history with slavery and resentment from its abolition among politicians and former slaveholders created a hostile environment in the region.

People experienced oppression both structurally through these racist laws and personally from individual people. Strongly held racist ideologies gave rise to white supremacist organizations, like the Klu Klux Klan, and spontaneous mobs that resulted in terrorizing Black people and the practice of lynchings. The reality of life throughout the South was marred by violence and oppression, and these occurrences became mostly Southern violence.

Resistance to Oppression

Historically, communities have organized to resist structural and communal oppression, from communities establishing Underground Railroad stops in Guilford County, NC, to modern groups protesting against the continued activity of the KKK. Southern community organizing against white supremacist institutions, laws, and violence is known as the Southern Freedom Movement. The Civil Rights Movement in the South falls under this tradition, many preferring the term Southern Freedom Movement since it encompasses more than select civil rights, representing the struggle against white supremacy and for justice and freedom for all Southern people.

North Carolina became an incubator for many movement leaders and organizations during the 1960’s, including the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and organizers for Community Organizing for Racial Equality (CORE), the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and the NAACP. The legacy of the Southern Freedom Movement continues with many organizations throughout the years: North Carolinians Against Racist and Religious Violence, Southerners on New Ground, Black Workers for Justice, and SpiritHouse to name a few.

The Southern Freedom Movement operates on principles of racial, social, and economic justice with a vision for a South that is free of oppression and where all Southerners have safety, health, and happiness. This organizing effort builds solidarity across the U.S. South and the Global South, seen through connections made between Southern organizers in the 1960’s and the events happening with the war in Vietnam and apartheid in South Africa. This expanded view of Southern solidarity is practiced in organizations like the Southern Movement Assembly.

While the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964 and the Fair Housing Act in 1968 saw the legal end of explicit Jim Crow laws, racial injustice persists and the Southern Freedom Movement continues to organize across the South and in North Carolina. By exploring the documented history of lived experiences of people in North Carolina and the efforts undertaken to improve the lives of those who live here, we can understand the causes that lead to these movements and their ongoing work and legacies.

Discussion Questions

  1. Views of Protests and Social Movements

    • Reviewing the Carolina Times issue from February 1960, what were the varying opinions at the time of the sit-in protests? How are they each similar or different to how these sit-ins are viewed today?*
      • Now read the ‘Now It Can Be Told’ article from The News-Journal out of Raeford, NC. Which viewpoint from the Carolina times is reflected in this article?*
        • What is the significance of this article being released four months after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.?**
      • How do we see similarities between views of student and broader protest demonstrations during the 1960’s and how student and community protests are viewed today?**
        • Based on the changing views on civil rights protests over time, how do you think the protests of today will be viewed in the future?**
        • Review this article on the four A&T students that sparked the lunch counter sit-ins and this oral history of a professor at St. Augustine University, then read this article on UNC’s refusal to support integration. How do universities’ involvement or abstention in social movements impact the communities in which they reside?**
      • Read these articles (one and two) on Martin Luther King Jr.’s legacy as a radical movement leader. How was he viewed while he was alive? How is he viewed today?*
        • What is the difference between these viewpoints and what do you think led to these differences?**
          • Do you think Martin Luther King Jr. and his ideals have been misrepresented over time? What would be the possible impacts of misrepresenting his work and legacy as a radical?**

  2. Greensboro, NC

    • Review the history of the Greensboro sit-ins through this article. What was the impact of the students’ protest using civil disobedience?*
      • Review the article describing Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech at White Rock Baptist Church in Durham. What was the reaction to these protests?*
        • How did this impact the success of the protests in North Carolina and across the South?**
      • Review the article interviewing Rev. Ben Chavis where he describes the ongoing movement for racial justice in 1977 and his arrest for organizing against racial violence in Wilmington in 1971. According to his interview, did the Black community and organizers in Wilmington receive support and if so, from whom?*
        • What were the reasons for support or lack thereof?*
        • What was the relationship between law enforcement and the racial violence in Wilmington? Is this relationship still seen today?**
      • In 1979, community members in Greensboro had organized a ‘Death to the Klan’ rally to protest the continued activity of white supremacists in Greensboro, further history can be found here. How does this relate to the Wilmington 10 and the ongoing organizing for racial justice in the face of racial violence?**
        • Review this article on Sandi Smith, one of the people killed during the Greensboro Massacre and this article from the Guilford College paper on the massacre. What were the differences in the reporting on the massacre?*
          • How does ideology influence perception of this event? How does perception change over time?**
        • Read this article on the acquittal of all people arrested for the murders during the Greensboro massacre and the resulting protest. What institutions and/or ideologies contributed to the acquittal? Was the protest response helpful? Why or why not?**
        • Read this article on guns and the Southern Freedom Movement. How does this relate to the events of the Greensboro Massacre and the arrest of the Wilmington 10?**
          • What do these events share about the reasons why communities may choose armed self-defense?**

  3. Greensboro Telegram and Goodbye Carolina

    • Read the article “Plea for White Supremacy: Strong Speech by a Brave Man” from the Greensboro Telegram and then watch the “Goodbye Carolina” video. How do these pieces of media stand in opposition to each other?*
    • Were the fears of mass Black migration to North Carolina if racial equality through voter’s rights was achieved as described in the article in the Greensboro Telegram a founded fear? Why or why not?**
    • The video from 1964 detailed why students would not be seeking employment or continuing to live in North Carolina, what were those reasons? How have these conditions changed since and/or how have they remained the same?**

  4. Kissing Case

    • After watching this speech by former Governor Luther Hodges, learn more about his role in the infamous Kissing Case and the impact of public relations campaigns in this dissertation. How were public relations used by the governor in defense of his and the state of North Carolina’s actions with these children? How were public relations tactics used by the side defending the children?**
      • Review the history of this case as told by James Thompson, one of the boys arrested during the Kissing Case. What does this show you about the connection between the actions of politicians and public officials and the impact on individual lives?**

  5. What can you conclude about the reality of the Jim Crow era in North Carolina based on these sources?**

    • Do you notice any legacies of Jim Crow still in North Carolina today? Why or why not?**
    • How did the Civil Rights Movement and the Southern Freedom Movement address the realities of Jim Crow and how does the movement continue to address racial injustice today?**

  6. Review the article from the Lumbee quoting Martin Luther King Jr.’s ‘Why We Can’t Wait.” Then review this source on the position of the NAACP regarding the connection between the movement for racial justice in the United States and the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa. How are social movements linked and what are the advantages of viewing them as such? Are there disadvantages to social movement solidarity?**

  7. How do the St. Augustine students writing in this issue of The Pen describe ‘Black Power’? What is its relation to white supremacy?*

    • How does this fit or not fit as a part of the Southern Freedom Movement?**

     

    * Questions that check for comprehension

    ** Questions that involve a “deeper dive” in conceptual and historical analysis

This primary source set was compiled by cal lane.

Updated January 2025