Primary Source Set

Native Americans in North Carolina, 1900 to the Present

Today, North Carolina is home to over 130,000 Native Americans and eight state-recognized tribes. Native American communities have been severely impacted since the first instances of European colonization in the 1600s, but the 20th century brought particular kinds of legislation, policies, and media representations that have affected the Indigenous peoples of North Carolina. With materials dating between 1900 and the present, this primary source set uses photographs, maps, catalogs, newspaper articles, and pamphlets to illustrate the challenges faced by North Carolina Native Americans and the efforts made to preserve their cultures and communities.

Proceed with caution and care through these materials as the content may be disturbing or difficult to review. Some sources include racist portrayals of Native Americans or contain descriptions of violence and discrimination enacted upon Native Americans. Please read DigitalNC’s Harmful Content statement for further guidance.

Time Period

1920-2019

Grade Level

Undergraduate

Transcript

IV – The History Introduction by Dr. A.R. Newsome Dr. Newsome, a charter member of the Roanoke Island Historical Association, is head of the History Department of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. For the early history of Roanoke Island he has turned to the works of Thomas Hariot, of Captains Amadas and Barlowe, and to the excellent drawings by John White, governor of the Lost Colony. Three and a half centuries ago, British power, piety and patriotism planted on Roanoke Island the first English colony in the New World. From this imperial seed-planting of long ago there germinated and grew the greatest empire in the history of the world. The sun never ceases to shine upon its earth-girdling territory, and the waves of every ocean wash its shores. Thrice historic is Roanoke Island, birthplace of British colonization which produced North Carolina, the United States and the British Empire. Catholic Spain and Portugal reaped rich rewards of gold and greatness from their pioneering in world exploration and colonization during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Drake, Hawkins and other bold sea captains of Protestant England preyed upon the treasure ships of mighty Spain and drew their country’s attention to the richness of America. British envy and hatred of Catholic Spain and the desire for an American base of attack; the hope of discovering a western water route to the rich Orient; scarcity of much-needed raw materials; the lure of precious metals, commerce, and economic opportunity; the call of adventure; the love of country; and the vision of a greater Britain–all these combined to interest England and Englishman in establishing permanent settlements in America. No man better understood the value of colonies or did more to win North America for England than Walter Raleigh–poet, soldier, statesman, historian, colonizer, and favorite of Queen Elizabeth. He lavished thought, time and money upon the realization of his dream of a great English nation across the sea. In 1584, Raleigh obtained authority from the queen to explore and colonize “remote heathen and barbarous lands, countries and territories not actually possessed of any Christian Prince, nor inhabited by Christian people.” He hurriedly fitted out two small vessels under Captains Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe who sailed from the “west of England” in April to explore the North American coast and select a site for a colony. A sixty-nine day voyage by way of the Canaries and the West Indies brought them to the present coast of North Carolina on July 4. Skirting the coast northward a hundred and twenty miles, they entered an inlet, gave thanks to God, landed, and took possession of the land for their sovereign. They traded with the astonished but friendly Indians, soon learned that the region was a long, narrow island, and later crossed the sound to Roanoke Island. Charmed by the summer beauty of the region, they thought the new land a veritable paradise. After two months, they returned to England, taking with them two Indians, Manteo and Wanchese, and reported to Raleigh that the soil was “the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world” and the Indians were “most gentle, loving, and faithful, void of all guile and treason.” Delighted at the success of his expedition, Raleigh induced Elizabeth to to name the new land Virginia, in honor of herself, the Virgin Queen; and, further elated by the honor of knighthood conferred by the queen, he prepared to plant a permanent settlement in this new-world paradise. On April 9, 1585, a fleet of seven small vessels bore from Plymouth the guest Indians Manteo and Wanchese and a band of one hundred eight men, among whom were Sir Richard Grenville, general of Virginia and governor of the colony, and his deputy, Captain Ralph Lane; Philip Amadas, one of the captains of the expedition of 1584; Thomas Hariot, the scientist and historian of the colony; and John White, an artist whose water-color paintings of the Indians became famous when engraved and published in 1590 by Theodore DeBry as illustrations in his edition of Hariot’s history. Following the route of the Canaries and West Indies, the fleet anchored at Ocracoke Inlet late in July. After exploring the mainland, the colonists arrived at Hatteras on July 27 and at Roanoke Island soon thereafter. On August 25 Grenville sailed for England to obtain fresh supplies, leaving Governor Land and his heroic colony as the only English bulwark in the New World against powerful Spain, relentless Nature and the savage Indians. At the northern end of Roanoke Island, Governor Lane built a stout fort and the “City of Raleigh,” a village of “decent dwelling houses.” He made extensive explorations on the mainland in fruitless search for precious metals and stones. With great courage he suppressed two Indian conspiracies that menaced the existence of the colony, capturing one Indian king and killing another. Despite hardships and scarcity of food, only four colonists died during the winter. Spring brought increased danger of famine and Indian attack. Despairing of the return of Grenville, now long overdue, homesick, fearful of massacre and starvation, with no other means of escape from this place of toil, danger, and starvation, the colonists embarked for England in June, 1586, aboard the fleet of Sir Francis Drake, who had stopped to learn how the colony was faring. Thus, after a precarious existence of less than a year, the first English settlement in America was abandoned. Almost immediately after the departure of Lane’s colony, a supply vessel sent by Raleigh reached Roanoke but, finding no settlers, returned to England. Two weeks later, Grenville arrived with three ships; but, after a vain search, he departed for home, leaving fifteen men with two years’ provisions on Roanoke Island to hold the land for England. The savages soon reasserted their control over the island by attacking the band of fifteen men, killing some of them and driving the others away to an unknown fate. Chronology of Pre-Colonial America 1001–Lief Erickson discovered America. 1492–Columbus discovered America. 1497–John Cabot explored the coast of North America for England but attempted no settlement. 1513–Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. 1521–Ponce DeLeon, in search of the Fountain of Youth, explored Florida for Spain. 1534–Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence for France. 1565–St. Augustine, Florida, settled by the Spaniards. 1583–Sir Humphrey Gilbert explored coast of Newfoundland for England but attempted no settlement. 1584–Sir Walter Raleigh sent Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlow, to select a site for a settlement in the New World. Roanoke Island was explored and chosen. 1585–Expedition under command of Sir Richard Grenville to attempt first permanent settlement at “Fort Raleigh,” Roanoke Island. Left Fort early next year aboard fleet of Sir Francis Drake. –Sir Francis Drake sacked and burned St. Augustine. 1586–Grenville arrived on Roanoke Island with supplies and men for colony but found Fort deserted. Left 15 men on Roanoke Island to hold site. 1587–Third expedition sent by Sir Walter, headed by Governor John White. It became the ill-fated Lost Colony. –Aug. 18, birth of Virginia Dare–first English child born in America–on Roanoke Island. 1588–The Spanish Armada destroyed by Sir Francis Drake by Sir Francis Drake. 1590–Governor White returned to search for the Lost Colony but discovered only the cryptic word “Croatoan” carved on a tree. 1603–Death of Queen Elizabeth. 1607–Captain John Smith’s permanent English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. 1620–The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts.

"The History Introduction," The Lost Colony Souvenir Program

Since 1937, an outdoor play called The Lost Colony has been put on in Manteo, North Carolina almost every summer night. Based on the failed English attempt to colonize Roanoke Island, the play has a history of using skin-darkening makeup and casting non-Indigenous actors to play Native American characters. This playbill from the 1947 season includes a section on the history that informs much of the play. The writing describes the English colonization efforts with a positive viewpoint, but portrays Native Americans stereotypically with terms like “savage.”

Contributed to DigitalNC by Roanoke Island Historical Association

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Manteo, N.C. (Dare County)

Native Americans in North Carolina, 1900 to the Present

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Background

Native Americans have populated the area that now makes up North Carolina since the end of the last Ice Age, during the Pleistocene era (about 12,000 years ago). Contact with European colonists began in the early 1600s, which led to the settler-colonialism and westward expansion of the 18th and 19th centuries. The 20th century was also a time of oppression and change for Indigenous peoples in North Carolina. While certain legislation, policies, and media representations from 1900 to the present have affected and even harmed Native Americans, Indigenous groups have made efforts to protect their cultures and communities.

Today, North Carolina is home to eight state-recognized tribes, which include the Coharie tribe, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, the Haliwa-Saponi tribe, the Lumbee tribe, the Meherrin Indian tribe, the Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation, the Sappony, and the Waccamaw Siouan tribe. Of these eight groups, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is the only one to have received full federal recognition. While the Lumbee tribe is the largest in North Carolina, it has only been partially recognized by the federal government in the Lumbee Act of 1956. The Lumbee tribe has since worked to obtain full recognition by introducing bills, creating petitions, and forming committees in hopes of receiving the same benefits and funding as fully recognized tribes. 

Although federal recognition of tribes has been a key part of Native American legislation, other types of legislation have also made significant changes. In 1924, the Indian Citizenship Act granted citizenship to all Native Americans born within the United States. However, the act failed to properly secure voting rights for Indigenous communities; many states continued to deny Native Americans their right to vote. Ten years later, the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act passed. The act ended the allotment of tribal lands, put funds toward Native American education, and encouraged tribes to establish governments and constitutions modeled after that of the United States. The act has received mixed reactions, as some argue that it strengthened tribal communities, while others say the act failed to address the different needs of tribes. In 1972, the General Assembly created the North Carolina Commission of Indian Affairs. The Commission provided Native American communities with an opportunity to work with the state to address issues, advance social and economic development, and advocate for their communities’ right to engage in their cultural and religious practices.

Education was another significant source of change for Native Americans in the 20th century. Beginning in the mid-1800s, Indigenous children in North Carolina and across the country were forced to attend segregated boarding schools led by white instructors. Students were banned from participating in their cultural practices and punished for speaking Native American languages, like Cherokee. One institution, the Croatan Normal School, was established in 1887 to train Native Americans to become public school teachers. After desegregation, the school expanded its mission and curriculum. It eventually became the University of North Carolina at Pembroke in 1996. 

Representations of Native Americans in the media have also affected the Indigenous communities of North Carolina. While several popular outdoor plays portray Native American characters, their representations differ. Some of these outdoor dramas, like Unto these Hills, have long casted Native actors to play Native American characters. A play called The Lost Colony, however, has a history of casting white actors in Native roles and using skin-darkening makeup. In recent years, The Lost Colony has acknowledged its racist practices. Its creators have worked to improve its depiction of Native American characters by casting Indigenous actors and placing Native Americans on the board that oversees the play.

The Native Americans of North Carolina have experienced significant changes and challenges from 1900 onward. Nevertheless, their communities have continuously worked to preserve their cultures and traditions. In 2006, Governor Michael Easley proclaimed November as American Indian Heritage Month. Easley marked it as a time to acknowledge and celebrate Native Americans across the state. Every November, Raleigh holds an American Indian Heritage Celebration, where visitors can learn about Indigenous culture through performances, exhibits, and demonstrations. Heritage preservation has also occurred on college campuses across North Carolina, with Indigenous students creating clubs to support Native students and teach others about Native American history, art, and culture. For tribes like the Cherokee, language has been a key part of protecting heritage. At Western Carolina University, Cherokee language courses have been taught to undergraduates since the 1980s. Institutions like the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Duke University have also begun to teach classes on the Cherokee language.

Discussion Questions

  1. Consider the two playbills from The Lost Colony outdoor drama, one from 1947 and the other from 2021. How does the older playbill portray Native Americans in its historical introduction? How does the portrayal differ from how the 2021 playbill describes the play’s Native characters and actors?

    • What do these playbills tell you about perspectives on Native Americans?
    • Do you think the 2021 playbill does a good job of supporting and portraying Native Americans? What considerations should the media take into account when portraying Native Americans characters and stories?
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  2. While there are eight Native American tribes in North Carolina, only one tribe, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, has received full federal recognition. Consider the differences in how tribes in North Carolina are recognized. How might the communities of the non-federally recognized tribes be affected by the lack of recognition?

    • In what ways has the Lumbee tribe tried to gain recognition? How do you think the Lumbee specifically are affected by the lack of federal recognition?

  3. The Native American boarding school system played a significant role in the forced assimilation of Indigenous people. Why was this system harmful to Native children and families? In what ways have boarding schools and assimilation had lasting effects on Native Americans today? Consider Indigenous practices, languages, and culture.

  4. How has federal and state legislation in the 20th century onward impacted Native Americans in North Carolina? How has it affected their cultures and economies?

  5. In what ways have Native Americans in North Carolina preserved and strengthened their cultures and communities during the 20th century to the present? What challenges have they faced that have impeded this endeavor?

This primary source set was compiled by Isabella Walker.

Updated January 2025